Active Vibration Control Importance In Mechanical Systems Engineering Essay

This literature study is based on active quiver control and its technology importance in systems ( mechanical ) . Active quiver control is the procedure of minimizing, insulating or rarefying forces imposed by quiver, by actively using opposing forces in order to acquire a desirable status which may be vibration-free or a minimized status. The active control of quiver is of great importance in design of mechanical systems like choppers, where the usage of active quiver control method, has offered a better comfort for the rider with less weight than the inactive alteration, which is the 2nd chief method of commanding quiver. Active control is besides used in cut downing low frequence quiver in constructions by utilizing lightweight quiver actuators like piezoelectric ceramic. Many industrial operations and procedures can non take topographic point if the industrial equipments are non operated in a vibration-free status, this necessitates quiver control. Since quiver may be caused by the instability in most machine parts ( revolving parts like bearings, shaft, cogwheels, flywheel etc ) the cognition of active quiver control is indispensable for the machine interior decorator in order to bring forth an efficient and effectual machine systems for modern twenty-four hours fabrication. Active quiver control has up to four me thods viz. : matrix method, theoretical finite component method, frequence response map and receptances method. The receptance method involve poles and zeros arrangement ( assignment of characteristic root of a square matrixs ) which changes the natural frequences to avoid resonance. However, the construct of classical quiver absorber can be related to a Frahm who registered US patent in 1909 for a device muffling quiver organic structures [ 1 ] . The theory of quiver soaking up foremost appeared in 1928 [ 2 ] in an unfastened literature and was made widely available in 1943 in the first edition of a book authored by J.P Den Hartog, ‘Mechanical quiver ‘ [ 3 ] . There are two chief types of quiver control viz. : the inactive structural alteration and active quiver control. The application of the former can be traced back to the work of Duncan [ 4 ] . In 1941 he determined the dynamic features of a compound system formed from two or more subsystems with complecting belongingss and known receptances.The assignment of characteristic root of a square matrix in active control community started in 1960 ‘s when Wonham [ 5 ] gave an exhibition that poles of a system could be assigned by a province feedback in a state of affairs whereby the system can be controlled. Kautsky et.al [ 6 ] described the numerical method for happening robust ( good conditioned ) solutions to the province feedback pole assignment job by specifying a solution infinite of linearly independent eigenvectors, matching to the characteristic root of a square matrixs required. The solutions gotten were such that the sensitiveness of poles assigned to disturbances in the systems and addition matrices was reduced. One of the interesting facet in active quiver control is the quadratic characteristic root of a square matrix job ( QEP ) taken into history by Tisseur and Mbergeen [ 7 ] , they described the assorted linearization i.e. transmutation of QEP into additive generalized eigenvalue jobs with the same characteristic root of a square matrixs and computational method besides integrating as many types of package available like matlab. A study of experimental and theoretical survey of active quiver control was carried out, with some documents that contained the relevant surveies. The literature study majorly contained past research work done by little figure of establishments and experts with their different techniques and so follows a brief treatment on documents of peculiar involvement.1.1 Experimental Surveies1.1.1 Techniques used in University of SouthamptonNumerous sum of work has been published, this mainly uses speed feedback. In publication of Brennan et Al. [ 8 ] , five different actuators were compared ( magnetostrictive, electromagnetic and three piezoelectric types ) . There was a balance in all the devices between supplanting and force generating public presentation ; hence a method of mensurating the balance was deduced. Improvement would hold been made, because it was written as far back as 1998, particularly in piezoelectric. Decentralised speed feedback is described in publication work of Serrand and Elliot [ 9 ] , on a stiff construction with a brace of about collocated detectors electromagnetic actuators, which are in parallel with a inactive saddle horse. Two control channels which are independent were used and shown to rarefy low manners ( 40dB ) mostly and be stable to little fluctuations in mass. The published work of Sang-Myeong et Al, . [ 10 ] Shows that the decentralized control is expanded to a stiff construction with four detectors and actuators, and so follows the same set up in a flexible construction [ 11 ] . The control strategy was used to rarefy low frequence which is less than 100 Hz quiver by up to 14 dubnium, limited by the instability of the low frequence introduced from filtrating stage displacements. State feedback from speed and force measuring Benassi et al [ 12 ] is used on a 3 grade of freedom ( DOF ) system, utilizing an actuator of individual inactiveness. The feedback cringle of interior force ( with a phase-lag compensator ) , reduces the natural frequence and adds considerable muffling. Control attempt and consequence can be compared to a linear-quadratic regulator ( LQ R ) .In published work of Benassi et al. , [ 13 ] , the same system was used for displacement feedback, with PID used to forestall the sagging of the actuator and to modify the natural frequence of the actuator. Highpass filters are used on the four on the four detector and actuator decentralized system Brennan et al [ 14 ] to give an fading of 20 dubnium for manners at frequence less than 100 Hz. In ( Brennan et al, 2007 ) , the instability introduced from filtrating as a consequence of stage displacement is tested on the two actuator system described in the published work of Serrand and Elliot ( 2000 ) . Condition for stableness of supplanting, speed and acceleration feedback using highpass filters were developed, it was besides shown that high damping and relatively low corner frequences are desirable for supplanting and speed feedback. Gatti et Al ( 2007 ) used collocated piezoelectric transducer actuators and accelerometers, and dampen quiver by explicitly ciphering the minimum kinetic energy of the system. The system was found to be unstable when much lower additions lower than maximal theoretical were used. An absolute speed control ( AVF ) strategy ( Yan Et Al, Journal of sound quiver ) was shown to be effectual at rarefying merely low frequence manners therefore get jobs with the actuator resonances which is stabilized by a lead compensator.1.1.2 Techniques used in Virginia TechWilliam et al [ 11 ] provides a general reappraisal of the operation of four different types of piezoceramic actuators, with the preliminary trial of d31 consequence of Macro Fibre Composites ( MFCs ) on a 1.8 meters diameter inflatable toroid ( hard state of affairs to prove, because of its flexibleness ) . Sodano et al [ 12 ] ran Single Input Single Output ( SISO ) and Multiple Input and Multiple Output ( MIMO ) tests on the same cons truction, utilizing MFC detectors [ 13 ] .In order to excite the whole toroid, a big propulsion force was required ( 800V through the MFC, 0-200Hz ) . Comparison was made between control strategies utilizing both sets of detectors on the toroid construction utilizing PPF ( Sodano, 2004 ) . The cleaner The PVDF detectors allowed lower fading when compared to that of cleaner signals from the MFCs which allow a significantly higher fading. Positive Velocity Feedback ( PVF ) was used by Tarazaga et al [ 15 ] to stifle a little inflatable construction, and compared instrument like optical maser vibrometer, accelerometer and strain gage detectors. Four FMC actuators were used while their control parametric quantities were tuned by manus. A 23 dubnium decrease was achieved in one manner with feeling via optical maser vibrometer, 7.db with strain gage. Alhazza et al [ 16 ] conducted a elaborate probe on delayed feedback of a non-collocated PZT patch/accelerometer brace clamped on abeam, to stifle two manners at the same time. It has been shown that the muffling control is maximised where each pole has existent parts of similar magnitudes. Mahmoodi et al [ 17 ] used modified positive place feedback on an aluminum beam with two braces of MFC sensor/actuator. They besides used realtime Fast Fourier Transform monitoring in dSPACE to about find the resonances of the system and alter the frequence of the accountant consequently. A big amplitude decrease was achieved in two manners ( 23-37 dubnium ) and a little alteration in frequences as an inauspicious consequence.1.1.3 Techniques used in BrusselsPerumont have written many documents but the most recent one is based on isolation of warheads. Hanieh and Perumont [ 18 ] used relative and built-in compensators to cut down the natural frequence of an isolator construction by half ( 50 % ) , although this does non specifically place the poles. They highlighted the usage of built-in addition to brace the system for increasing relative addition. Marneffe and Perumont [ 19 ] showed that manners can be dampened by negative electrical capacity shunt circuits utilizing PZT actuators every bit good as increasing or diminishing the natural frequencies..This method does non stifle every bit good as Integrated Force Feedback ( IFF ) , nevertheless poles are non specified clearly. The system can besides supply some inactive fading. Preumont et al [ 20 ] described decentralized force feedback on six-axis isolator in order to stifle three widely spaced manners of frequence ( 3-400 Hz ) close to 40 dubniums. They discovered that the demand for highpass filter with a really low corner frequence whish stabilise the integrated signals has a side consequence on the fading.1.1.4 Techniques used in Other InstitutionsGaudenzi et al [ 21 ] applied place and speed feedback to a collocated PZT sensor/actuator on a clamped beam. Control additions are calculated in order to give specified muffling values in each instance, the frequence displacements are besides calculated but non clearly specified. Song et Al [ 22 ] compared Strain Rate Feedback ( SRF ) and Positive Position Feedback ( PPF ) for quiver decrease of a beam, utilizing a collocated PZT detector and actuator. They determined SRF damped quivers in about half clip of PPF, but the accountant bandwidth was much smaller. Vasques and Rodrigues [ 23 ] presented a numerical survey which compares Changeless Amplitude Velocity Feedback ( CAVF ) , Changeless Gain Velocity Feedback ( CGVF ) , Linear Quadratic Regulator ( LQR ) and Linear Quadratic Gausssian ( LQG ) control on a beam with a piezoelectric actuator/sensor collocated brace. The usage of Kalman-Bucy filter and its part to the possibility of spillover were demonstrated. CAVF and CGVF require distinction of the end product signals, which compromise stableness badly. The greatest fading was given by LQG control schemes with the lowest actuator force. Kolvalovs et al [ 24 ] model the effects of MFC actuators as a thermic burden in Finite Element ( thermic enlargement coefficient I ± = piezoelectric changeless vitamin D / electrode spacing I?es ) , which was compared favorably with trial on a clamped aluminum beam. There was a study of big fading but it was non the control method. PZT detectors and four PZT actuators were used by Kwak and Heo [ 25 ] on the legs of an ‘A ‘ frame to cut down quiver with Multiple-In-Multiple-Out PPF control. Block opposite technique was used by them to stifle more braces of pole than actuators, and to increase stableness. A decrease in natural frequences was predicted and observed, but are non explicitly specified in the control. Qiu et al [ 26 ] used non-collocated PZTs to command the first and the first two flexing manner of a beam. Lowpass filter and stage displacements were used to greatly lower the possibility of spillover. Their Variable Structure Control ( VSC ) uses the built-in of signal measured. Pole arrangement in procedure technology seems to be prevailing and reasonably implemented in a broad mode, for case Michiels et al [ 27 ] used the province feedback and the consequence of the clip hold was included. However, the chief aim in these systems is stability non the fading.1.1.5 Application of Pole PlacementAn interesting facet in pole arrangement is the work done by Mahmoodi et al [ 17 ] , where the accountant with regard to the natural frequences of the system determined from the extremums of a FFT in dSPACE. A technique which is the same could let the control of time-varying mass, the FFT must be buffered must be buffered, hence the adaptative control is comparatively slow. There may be demand of existent clip robust curve adjustment. In published work of Kwak and Heo [ 25 ] , it is shown that in an effort to delegate more poles than actuators with a PPF accountant, finding control additions utilizing the pseudo opposite may non be desiable. This cogency of this may besides be applicable for the receptance method. A figure of surveies have shown that the addition in truth of MFCs as detectors when compared to other strain gages and accelerometers could better the anticipations of the control addition. The simplest accountants, like displacement feedback were non every bit effectual as more complex accountants, but the optimum control strategy is non clear. It was shown that highpass filters and turning away of taking derived functions of measured signal are necessary. In some conditions of PZT actuators, lowpass filters were required because they can readily excite manners of high frequence and give rise to spillover.1.2 Theoretical SurveiesSome few documents were selected so that the consecutive development of the subject can be presented without adverting all the research works conducted by the research workers. Before the theoretical reappraisal it is imperative to present some mathematical theory of quiver suppression for the intent of familiarization with the active quiver control. In general the rule of active quiver control by method of receptance modelled by Mottershead and Ram [ 28 ] is as follows: See the three systems M, C, and K with province feedback ; Where, M is the mass system â€Å" C is the damping system â€Å" K is jumping system ( stiffness ) Ma ( T ) + Ca?†¹ ( T ) + Kx ( T ) = degree Fahrenheit ( T ) ( clip sphere ) ( 1 ) Ma ( T ) + Ca?†¹ ( T ) + Kx ( T ) = bu ( T ) + P ( T ) ( 2 ) B is a vector while u ( T ) is a scalar. U ( T ) = – ( gTx + fTa?†¹ ) U ( T ) = -gTx – fTa?†¹ Then equation ( 2 ) becomes Ma ( T ) + Ca?†¹ ( T ) + Kx ( T ) = B ( -gTx – fTa?†¹ ) + P ( T ) ( 3 ) Ma ( T ) + Ca?†¹ ( T ) + Kx ( T ) = – bgTx – bfTa?†¹ + P ( T ) ( 4 ) Under a existent status, each non nothing footings in B means the usage of an actuator while in g or degree Fahrenheit means the usage of detector. In frequence sphere, the consequence in equation ( 4 ) gives: [ Ms2 + Cs + K +b ( gT + foot ) ] x ( s ) =p ( s ) It is obvious that the close-loop dynamic stiffness is changed by the rank-1 alteration B ( gT+ foot ) due to the province feedback when one input is used. The opposite of a matrix with a rank-1 alteration in footings of the opposite of the original matrix is given by The Sherman-Morrison expression [ 29 ] .Hence, the close-loop receptance matrix is: A ¤ ( s ) = H ( s ) – H ( s ) B ( gT + foot ) H ( s ) 1+ ( gT + foot ) H ( s ) B H ( s ) is equal to the opposite of [ Ms + Cs + K ] . It may be determined practically from the matrix of receptances H ( tungsten ) measured at the sensor/actuator coordinates.1.2.1 Receptance Modelling TechniquesMottershead and Ram [ 28 ] concluded that the system matrices M, C and K are non required to be evaluated in delegating poles and nothings in active quiver control when utilizing receptance method. Duncan [ 30 ] and Sofrin [ 31 ] were the first set of people to compose paper which addressed the job of uniting two or more dynamical systems in 1941 and 1945 severally. The job considered by them was based on finding the dynamic behavior of a compound system which was formed as a consequence of uniting two or more subsystems with known receptances and known belongingss which are interconnected. The technique creates the footing for the job of direct structural alteration by receptance modeling, which the elaborate account has been given by Bishop and Johnson [ 32 ] . Ewins [ 33 ] gave a general expression for finding the receptances of a compound system utilizing measured receptances from another constituent. In this, the matrix of connection-point receptances need to be inverted, this is known to be an improperly posed job. Berman [ 33, 34 ] has explained the job in flexibleness matrix inversion to obtain stiffness and frailty versa. Weissenburger [ 35 ] presented the first paper to speak about reverse structural alteration job. In this job, the aim is to find the necessary alteration to put natural frequences and antiresonances ( assignment of characteristic root of a square matrix ) . The receptance in the receptance patterning method proposed by Weissenburger got decomposed into abbreviated set of spectra and manners. Weissenburger ‘s work was extended by Pomazal autonomic nervous systems Synder [ 36 ] to muffle system and see the best pick of alteration co-ordinates. Dowell [ 36 ] used an attack called quotient attack considered the general form of puting natural frequences after adding mass and spring to modify. The straightforward procedure applied in simple unit-rank alterations by add-on of a mass, is the assignment of individual natural frequence. It merely requires the measuring of the point receptance at the co-ordinate of alteration at the frequence to be assigned for the value of the mass added to be determined for the intent of delegating a individual natural frequence. In pattern, the add-on of a grounded spring is more hard than an added mass. Receptance modeling for the assignment of antiresonances was foremost applied in UK chopper industry in 1972. It was discovered by Vincent [ 37 ] that when a construction is excited at a point Q with fixed frequence is modified by adding a spring between two co-ordinates r and s, so the response at another point P will follow out a circle when it is plotted in the complex plane when the stiffness of the spring is being varied from subtraction to plus eternity. Hence there is a decrease in job of quiver suppression to happening point on the circle nearest to the complex response beginning. Thorough description of this method was given by Done and Hughes [ 38 ] and was further analysed by Nagy [ 39 ] to include Vincent circle analysis of a spring-mass absorber. The job of delegating antiresonance was discovered once more after a long period of no activities by Li et al [ 40 ] , but at that place was a restriction in their analysis by the necessity to find the manners of the ‘grounded ‘ system that have characteristic root of a square matrixs matching to the antiresonances. The manner was determined numerically from the mass and stiffness matrices already reduced in size by the eliminating row and column. The sensitivenesss of the system antiresonances were considered by Mottershead [ 41 ] . Vibration node was created by Mottershead and Lallement [ 42 ] by call offing pole with a nothing utilizing a receptance patterning method. Force restraint to measured point and cross-receptances was applied by Mottershead [ 43 ] in order to find characteristic root of a square matrixs ( pole ) , eigenvector and receptances of the forced systems. Then, add-on of multitudes to a beam leads to the accomplishment of delegating antiresonances in a physical experiment for the first clip.1.2.2 Active Control TechniquesMottershead and Ram [ 28 ] , concluded that active quiver control offers much greater flexibleness in delegating coveted dynamic behavior ( like poles ) than the inactive alteration because all poles can be assigned to order arbitrary location if the system is governable while in inactive alteration there is a restriction of symmetric alteration. In the theory of automatic control, a cardinal consequence provinces that the moral force of a system a can be regulated by delegating the characteristic root of a square matrixs, or poles, of the system utilizing a individual input force, provided that the system is governable [ 44 ] . Another option to modulate the moral force of a system is to utilize multiple control forces [ 45 ] . The usage of multiple control forces lead to accomplishment of redundancy which has been used by Kautsky et al [ 3 ] to do certain that there is hardiness of the control system in the sense that the pole assigned are non sensitive to disturbances in the parametric quantities of the system. For stableness to be achieved, all the system ‘s pole must lie on the left-hand side of the complex plane. In every bit much as natural quivers are described normally by finite component theoretical account which are of big dimensions, it is non normally easy to cognize whether all the characteristic root of a square matrixs possess negative existent parts, particularly when a large-space structural control system is being designed [ 46,47 ] . While some characteristic root of a square matrixs associated with big oscillation are being relocated, other characteristic root of a square matrix of which there was no purpose of altering them, shifted towards the righ hand-side of the complex plane and this may take to instability of the system. Such a procedure is called the spillover of poles. Saad [ 48 ] developed an algorithm for the selective changing of the spectrum of the dynamic system consists of a set of first-order differential equation. For the partial pole assignment job associated with systems undergoing quiver, a closed-form solution was derived in [ 49 ] , where there was resettlement of some coveted characteristic root of a square matrixs to order places, while all other characteristic root of a square matrixs remain unchanged. The usage of a certain perpendicularity relation m ade this accomplishable which applies to a general viscously-damped system. Generalisation has been made refering this method to include multi-input control forces. In this, little control attempt was control by redundancy in the control forces.1.2.3 Continuous System TechniqueThe job of direct characteristic root of a square matrix of a system which is additive and uninterrupted and in combination with another system is good understood. Danek [ 50 ] used Green ‘s maps in obtaining the characteristic equation and natural frequences of two beams which are connected at distinct points. Classical method of dividing variables was used by Nicholson and Bergman [ 51 ] in order to analyze free quiver of two types of combined additive undamped dynamical systems. Both systems need the add-on of oscillator to beams. Bergman and Nicholson [ 52 ] besides showed that for a additive combined system dwelling of a viscously damped simple beam and a figure of viscously damped oscillators, the response could be solved in closed signifier. Conditionss were given for the being of classical normal manners in a combined viscously damped additive system and the precise solution for the response to an arbitrary excitement when this status is satisfied. In uninterrupted systems, nodal points can be specified by utilizing inactive or active control. The control force in footings of an infinite merchandise of characteristic root of a square matrixs was expressed by Ram [ 53 ] . The consequence is based on certain relation that connects the eigenfunctions to a merchandise of characteristic root of a square matrixs [ 54 ] .It was shown by Singh and Ram [ 55 ] that anodal point in a vibrating beam may be assigned bythe usage of manner form informations associated with auxiliary set of partial differential equations. In decision,

Morris Lurie’s ‘Pride and Joy’ Essay

Write about how one character from Morris Lurie’s ‘Pride and Joy’ is presented and how this character develops key concerns in the story. Billy in Morris Lurie’s ‘Pride and Joy’ is initially presented as a 16 year old boy who literally lives his life in the footsteps of his abusive, irresponsible, bohemian father, Ned Mathews. By the end of the story Billy’s character has undergone a transformation to become his own person; he has broken away from his father. This short story is told in first person narrative by an anonymous narrator. This narrator is a tourist on an island in the â€Å"Great Barrier Reef† who tells his account of his encounter with millionaire Ned Mathews and his son, Billy. Through his characterization of Billy, Morris Lurie conveys themes of self realization, responsibility, judgment, and parenting. This essay will show how Billy’s characterization develops Morris Lurie’s themes. Wealth, ownership, control and his desire for his father’s approval shows how Lurie, through his characterization of Billy conveys his theme of lifestyle choices. Ever since Billy and his father come to the island they act like they own everything and everyone on it. When they go to eat breakfast in the morning, Billy deals with the â€Å"very pretty† waitress like she is a prostitute, â€Å"‘What’s ya name, honey? he said ‘Why?’ said the girl. ‘I always like to know the names of the girls I sleep with.† Lurie’s use of a colloquial language and inappropriate language such as ‘honey’ and ‘sleep with’ during Billy’s dialogue with a waitress show his desire to control a situation and to please his father; â€Å"‘Easy, son’ said Mathews, but his face was beaming with pride. Billy’s self-confident and commanding swagger, â€Å"He [Billy] walked with an exaggerated swagger† is an example of a movement which Lurie associates with Billy to show yet another aspect of his desire to dominate over everyone else in the restaurant. By exploring Billy’s inappropriate choice of lifestyle in great detail, Lurie expresses his theme, which is to take care when choosing your lifestyle. Billy’s desire to please his father and to control is reiterated by the motif of alcohol. Billy is too young to be drinking as much alcohol as he does, yet he does and he does it to please his father and to control by demonstrating that he is able to drink as much as his father. This is shown in the quotation, â€Å"His son [Billy] matched him drink for drink.† Lurie’s use of the narrator’s voice is very significant here because the narrator is presented to readers as very moral and sensible, so when the narrator talks about a boy drinking as much as a man we worry. This concern is further addressed by the narrative voice in the line, â€Å"I watched the boy. How long could he last? I thought. How long could he keep it up?† and also when he thinks, â€Å"Don’t tell me Billy is outdrinking him. I thought. His own son. His own pride and joy.† The pace is significantly sped up during these two quotations by the shorter more choppy sentenc es. This serves two purposes, first it makes the passage stand out from the rest of the paragraph and second it permits the narrator to clearly state his point. The repetition of â€Å"I though† in both quotations creates an effective link of the two quotations. It is therefore reasonable to assume that the meaning of the two quotes are linked and that the narrator is wondering if Ned Mathew’s own ‘ride and joy’, his son Billy is already better at living the life of a spoiled, rude man than Ned Mathews. This is ironic because Billy is just a boy, so of course the narrator wonders â€Å"How long can he keep it up?† Another example is, â€Å"‘When are we going to have some real drinking, Dad?’†¦ ‘I thought you told me we was gonna have some real fun.'† Billy’s arrogance and the awkwardness of having an adolescent talking about drinking with his father really shines through here. He is almost criticizing his father because he has not had any â€Å"real drinking†. Lurie employs dialogue and colloquial diction such as â€Å"we was† to make the conversation sound even more out of place. Lurie’s selection of alcohol as a motif in the story is important because alcohol has negative connotations and is illegal for adolescents to buy. By associating Billy with alcohol Lurie is implying that the life he is living where alcohol is a daily part of his routine is not suiting. Through Billy, Lurie evokes a theme of self realization which results in Billy’s character development. The first time there is evidence of this change in character is when Billy meets â€Å"the Princess† and eventually when he â€Å"started to cry† after him and his father got into a fight over his father’s abuse of â€Å"the Princess†. The most blatant example of this change however comes from Billy’s request for â€Å"tea† as opposed to the routine â€Å"coffee and beer†, â€Å"‘Not for me,’ said Billy, in a voice I had never heard him use before. A young boy’s voice. ‘Can I have’†¦. ‘a cup of tea?'† In this quotation Lurie utilizes related diction such as â€Å"Can† which has connotations of manners and kindness. Even the narrator recognizes Billy’s character development because he states that Billy spoke in a â€Å"young boy’s voice† which is a voice he had not spoken in before. The narrator is referring to Billy’s transgression from a boy who acts like an indecorous adult to a boy who acts like a â€Å"young boy†. There is also more subtle evidence of Billy’s character development in the text. The adjectives and adverbs change to correspond with the two different aspects of Billy’s character. In the first part of the text adjective and adverbs such as â€Å"bleary† and â€Å"cocky then in the second part of the short story Lurie uses a new selection of adjectives and adverbs such as, â€Å"neat†, â€Å"polite† and â€Å"young†. Lurie’s ability to reveal Billy through three different viewpoints: his father’s, the narrators and Billy’s own view of himself gives different perspectives to his character which helps position the readers to the themes of the short story. The overwhelming amount of dialogue in this text between Billy and his father Ned Mathews shows Billy and his father’s view that everything revolves around them. They are the only voice, which is heard in the story through dialogue despite the fact that there are roughly 80 other people on the island. The movements and actions of Billy convey part of his character. Billy’s actions are often direct or closely linked to the actions of his father. This shows the way that Billy looks up to the actions of his father, and how his father will abuse that respect throughout the story. Directly after his father tells the bartender to get â€Å"off his fat behind† and give a bit of service Billy says, â€Å"Yeah, shake it up there.† This quotation creates a nice image of the typical clichà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ where a father says something and then his son repeats it. Except Billy is mimicking a very offensive and inappropriate thing that his father just said. This shows the reader how Ned Mathews is a inconsiderate role model and a poor parent. Through Billy’s actions Lurie also shows that Billy is not prepared to live the lifestyle of his father. â€Å"The boy I noticed had to take a breath half way down.† This quotations refers to the fact that Billy cannot drink all of the beer in one â€Å"gulp† when his father can as proof that his father’s life is not necessarily appropriate for him. This concern of Billy not being suited for his father’s life is restated by the narrator when he wonders, â€Å"How long can he last?† Through Billy, Lurie is able to express his themes and concerns in an interesting and realistic manner. The themes and concerns developed in ‘Pride and Joy’ may appear to be very simple and obvious but that by no means makes them less important. Themes such as self realization, responsibility, judgment, and parenting are very significant in everyone’s lives.

Truman Doctrine

Truman Doctrine Ryan Hauppa A. Plan of Investigation The following questions will be investigated: What were the events and decisions that led to the development of the Truman Doctrine? What was its effect on US Foreign Policy and its impact on Greece, Turkey and Europe? Research will be conducted concerning the Post World War II Treaties as Potsdam, Soviet Union aggression, and the Greek and Turkey Crisis. These events prompted the development of the Truman Doctrine – the US foreign policy to contain the spread of Communism. Truman’s 1947 Address that introduced the doctrine to the world, his own personal thoughts, and the support and criticism of the policy will be examined. The doctrine will be analyzed as to how it shaped future American policies and programs as the Marshall Plan and led to the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War over forty years later. (Word Count -143) B. Summary of Evidence World War II devastated Europe. Millions of people died. Many of those remaining were starving and in need of food and shelter since the farms and cities of many countries were destroyed. Billions of dollars were spent. Countries were nearly bankrupt. Europe was in economic, social, and political devastation. After the surrender of Germany in 1945, the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union met first at Yalta and later at Potsdam in Germany. They met to resolve war reparations and boundaries of Germany. As part of the agreements, Germany was divided into East and West. The Eastern portion was controlled by the Soviet Union and the West by the United States, United Kingdom, and France. Berlin, the capital, which is inside Eastern Germany, was also divided by the four countries. Pemberton 50) In 1945 and 1946, Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, had been taking over new countries including Poland, Hungary, Romania, and Czechoslovakia by establishing governments favorable to him. (CNN Cold War Appendix Maps) The Soviet Union focused next on Greece and Turkey. In February of 1947, Great Britain informed the United States in a â€Å"State Department Telegr am† that that they could no longer provide financial aid to the governments of Greece and Turkey since they did not have the money and resources. Both governments were being threatened by Communist insurgents. (Truman Library Telegram 1) Truman pledged that â€Å"it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or outside pressures† in a â€Å"Address of the President of the United States† in March of 1947. (Truman Address 1) The economic aid program was costly amounting to total of more than $400 million for the two countries to aid the pro-democracy governments and oppose the Communists. The policy was later called the Truman Doctrine. Congress was divided over the program. Democrats wanted to give diplomacy and the newly formed United Nations a chance while Republicans were isolationist and concerned that the program was too costly. Despite a divided Congress, the program was adopted since both eventually were more concerned over the spread of Communism in the region. The Cold War confrontation had begun. The United States and its principles of freedom, capitalism, and democracy were fighting philosophically and economically against Communism and the Soviet Union. Donovan 286) Truman and George Marshall, his Secretary of State, then prepared for even greater aid for the rest of Europe. Their objective was to rebuild Western Europe and prevent a Communism take over of the remaining free nations. The policy was called the Marshall Plan, the European Economic Recovery Program. Over $13 billion in aid was provided in 1947. (Truman Memoirs 111) The Cold War was expanded. Stalin tried to disrupt the United States and it s allies in 1948 and 1949 by shutting down access to Berlin. Truman responded by airlifting supplies into the city until access as again. (Pemberton 102) Afterward, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was formed in 1949 to defend Western Europe militarily against a Soviet invasion as response by the United States in the Cold War. The Soviet Union in turn allied the Eastern European nations under the Warsaw Pact. (Pemberton 104) The Berlin Wall, the symbol of the Cold War, was built in 1961 and later torn down in 1989 after many years of conflict. The Soviet Union ultimately collapsed in 1991. (Word Count – 567) C. Evaluation of Sources The most important source in investigating the topic of the Truman Doctrine is President Truman’s Memoirs. The actual 1947 â€Å"Presidential Address Recommending for Assistance to Greece and Turkey† and critical government documents as the â€Å"State Department Telegrams for Greece, Turkey and the USSR are included. Truman gives his own personal viewpoints of what happened while he was President. The researcher can obtain a clear view from the president himself. From his writings, you can tell that Truman was a hard working, â€Å"tell it like it is† man. When he made a decision, he stuck with it and moved on. The decision to proceed with the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan was difficult and not very popular, but Truman did it because he thought it was the right thing to do. The limitation of the source is that it was written by Truman and may make him look too favorable. The other source most used was the book written by Robert Donovan, The Presidency of Harry Truman 1945-1958 Conflict & Crisis. Mr. Donovan was a journalist at the White House during the Truman presidency. He provided critical firsthand insights into the actual events through his notes and research from the actual participants. His research into the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan was more thorough and comprehensive than most of the other sources used that were cited in the research paper. Mr. Donovan provides an excellent historical perspective of the pros and cons of Truman’s and his staff’s decisions. The limitation of the source is that the book was written in 1977 so it does not include the perspective after the fall of the Berlin Wall and the end of the Soviet Union and Communism in Europe. Word Count – 285) D. Analysis Truman in his Memoirs describes his 1947 Address as follows: â€Å"This was, I believe, the turning point in America’s foreign policy, which now declared that wherever aggression, direct or indirect, threatened by peace, the security of the United States was involved†¦After I delivered the speech the world reaction proved that t his approach had been the right one†. Truman went on further to describe in other addresses â€Å"the alternate ways of life†¦ One way is based on the will of the majority, and is distinguished by free institutions, representative government, free elections, guarantees of individual liberty, freedom of speech and religion and freedom from political oppression†¦The second way of life is based upon the will of the minority forcibly imposed upon the majority. It relies upon terror and oppression, a controlled press and radio, fixed elections and the suppression of personal freedoms†. (106) Truman believes that the United States and its democratic way of life is better then the Soviet Union and its evil oppressive way of life. He wanted to make sure that the world understood his commitment by his strong language. The Communists should not quickly take over free countries and threaten the United States and its allies. His own divided Congress should beware of the past policies of isolationism and the hope that diplomacy and the United Nations could solve the crisis. The Soviet Union already had taken over the Eastern European countries in violation of the Yalta and Potsdam agreements. The Greece and Turkey crisis was critical to victory in the Cold War. If either Greece or Turkey fell to the Soviet Union, the other would follow. More nations would tumble â€Å"as a row of falling dominoes† extending Soviet domination to Europe, the Middle East oil fields, and Africa. (Hamby 391) (CNN Cold War Appendix Maps) Communism could have spread very quickly worldwide, but it did not. The Truman Doctrine is the epitome of the containment of Communism. (Donovan 284) Greece, Turkey, Europe, and even Russia, the former Soviet Union, are currently free and democratic nations. Europe was in economic, political, and social devastation after World War II. Winston Churchill once declared, â€Å"What is Europe now? It is a rubble-heap, a charnel house, a breeding ground of pestilence and hate. † It was the perfect time for the Soviet Union to support Communism. (Goldman 66) At over $13 billion, it was aid on a much greater scale. The Truman Doctrine prompted the Marshall Plan. Truman in his Memoirs claimed that the plan was developed to do the following: (1) Counter increasing pressure of Communist imperialism, and (2) Rebuild Europe. By rebuilding Europe, America would help to establish that healthy economic balance which is essential to the peace of the world. 111) Rebuilding Europe was not only a national security issue but also a national economic issue. At the end of World War II, the United States was a major exporter. (Donovan 287) Without a strong Europe, the United States would likely have had a poor economy for many years because of lack of trade with Europe. Instead, the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan led to over fifty years of prosperity for Europe and the United States and the end of the Cold War. (Word Count – 534) E. Conclusion With the Truman Doctrine, the United States entered a new era of foreign policy. Great Britain, France, and Germany were no longer the colonial powers. The United States was the most powerful free nation in the world. The balance of power changed. Over the next forty years, the United States and the Soviet Union fought a Cold War for a way of life. The United States spent trillions of dollars, but the spread of Communism in Europe was contained. The result would have never have occurred had it not been for Truman’s bold move in Greece and Turkey. The cost was great, but the cost would have been greater if United States lost. Europe could have turned Communist. Instead, the Berlin Wall and the Soviet Union collapsed. Russia has enacted democratic reforms and a capitalist economy, which is ultimate proof of the success of the Truman Doctrine. (Word Count – 148) F. List of Sources Donovan, Robert, The Presidency of Harry Truman 1945-1958 Conflict & Crisis, Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1977. Goldman, Eric Frederick, The Crucial Decade and After: America, 1945-1960, New York: Random House Inc. , 1956. Hamby, Alonzo L, A Life of Harry S. Truman, Man of the People, New York: Oxford University Press Inc, 1995. Pemberton, William, Harry S. Truman, Fair Dealer & Cold Warrior, Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1989. State Department, â€Å"Summary of Telegrams for Greece, Poland and USSR,† 25 February 1947, Truman Presidential Museum and Library, 15 April 2003 Truman, Harry S. , â€Å"Address of the President of the United States: Recommendation of Assistance to Greece and Turkey,† 12 March 1947 Truman Presidential Museum and Library, 15 April 2003 Truman, Harry S. , Memoirs of Harry S. Truman, vol. 2. Garden City, Time, Inc. 1956. Woelfel, Scott, â€Å"Interactive Maps,† Cold War, CNN Interactive, April 1999 Oct 15, 2005 G. Appendix Truman Doctrine Truman Doctrine Ryan Hauppa A. Plan of Investigation The following questions will be investigated: What were the events and decisions that led to the development of the Truman Doctrine? What was its effect on US Foreign Policy and its impact on Greece, Turkey and Europe? Research will be conducted concerning the Post World War II Treaties as Potsdam, Soviet Union aggression, and the Greek and Turkey Crisis. These events prompted the development of the Truman Doctrine – the US foreign policy to contain the spread of Communism. Truman’s 1947 Address that introduced the doctrine to the world, his own personal thoughts, and the support and criticism of the policy will be examined. The doctrine will be analyzed as to how it shaped future American policies and programs as the Marshall Plan and led to the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War over forty years later. (Word Count -143) B. Summary of Evidence World War II devastated Europe. Millions of people died. Many of those remaining were starving and in need of food and shelter since the farms and cities of many countries were destroyed. Billions of dollars were spent. Countries were nearly bankrupt. Europe was in economic, social, and political devastation. After the surrender of Germany in 1945, the United States, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union met first at Yalta and later at Potsdam in Germany. They met to resolve war reparations and boundaries of Germany. As part of the agreements, Germany was divided into East and West. The Eastern portion was controlled by the Soviet Union and the West by the United States, United Kingdom, and France. Berlin, the capital, which is inside Eastern Germany, was also divided by the four countries. Pemberton 50) In 1945 and 1946, Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, had been taking over new countries including Poland, Hungary, Romania, and Czechoslovakia by establishing governments favorable to him. (CNN Cold War Appendix Maps) The Soviet Union focused next on Greece and Turkey. In February of 1947, Great Britain informed the United States in a â€Å"State Department Telegr am† that that they could no longer provide financial aid to the governments of Greece and Turkey since they did not have the money and resources. Both governments were being threatened by Communist insurgents. (Truman Library Telegram 1) Truman pledged that â€Å"it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or outside pressures† in a â€Å"Address of the President of the United States† in March of 1947. (Truman Address 1) The economic aid program was costly amounting to total of more than $400 million for the two countries to aid the pro-democracy governments and oppose the Communists. The policy was later called the Truman Doctrine. Congress was divided over the program. Democrats wanted to give diplomacy and the newly formed United Nations a chance while Republicans were isolationist and concerned that the program was too costly. Despite a divided Congress, the program was adopted since both eventually were more concerned over the spread of Communism in the region. The Cold War confrontation had begun. The United States and its principles of freedom, capitalism, and democracy were fighting philosophically and economically against Communism and the Soviet Union. Donovan 286) Truman and George Marshall, his Secretary of State, then prepared for even greater aid for the rest of Europe. Their objective was to rebuild Western Europe and prevent a Communism take over of the remaining free nations. The policy was called the Marshall Plan, the European Economic Recovery Program. Over $13 billion in aid was provided in 1947. (Truman Memoirs 111) The Cold War was expanded. Stalin tried to disrupt the United States and it s allies in 1948 and 1949 by shutting down access to Berlin. Truman responded by airlifting supplies into the city until access as again. (Pemberton 102) Afterward, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was formed in 1949 to defend Western Europe militarily against a Soviet invasion as response by the United States in the Cold War. The Soviet Union in turn allied the Eastern European nations under the Warsaw Pact. (Pemberton 104) The Berlin Wall, the symbol of the Cold War, was built in 1961 and later torn down in 1989 after many years of conflict. The Soviet Union ultimately collapsed in 1991. (Word Count – 567) C. Evaluation of Sources The most important source in investigating the topic of the Truman Doctrine is President Truman’s Memoirs. The actual 1947 â€Å"Presidential Address Recommending for Assistance to Greece and Turkey† and critical government documents as the â€Å"State Department Telegrams for Greece, Turkey and the USSR are included. Truman gives his own personal viewpoints of what happened while he was President. The researcher can obtain a clear view from the president himself. From his writings, you can tell that Truman was a hard working, â€Å"tell it like it is† man. When he made a decision, he stuck with it and moved on. The decision to proceed with the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan was difficult and not very popular, but Truman did it because he thought it was the right thing to do. The limitation of the source is that it was written by Truman and may make him look too favorable. The other source most used was the book written by Robert Donovan, The Presidency of Harry Truman 1945-1958 Conflict & Crisis. Mr. Donovan was a journalist at the White House during the Truman presidency. He provided critical firsthand insights into the actual events through his notes and research from the actual participants. His research into the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan was more thorough and comprehensive than most of the other sources used that were cited in the research paper. Mr. Donovan provides an excellent historical perspective of the pros and cons of Truman’s and his staff’s decisions. The limitation of the source is that the book was written in 1977 so it does not include the perspective after the fall of the Berlin Wall and the end of the Soviet Union and Communism in Europe. Word Count – 285) D. Analysis Truman in his Memoirs describes his 1947 Address as follows: â€Å"This was, I believe, the turning point in America’s foreign policy, which now declared that wherever aggression, direct or indirect, threatened by peace, the security of the United States was involved†¦After I delivered the speech the world reaction proved that t his approach had been the right one†. Truman went on further to describe in other addresses â€Å"the alternate ways of life†¦ One way is based on the will of the majority, and is distinguished by free institutions, representative government, free elections, guarantees of individual liberty, freedom of speech and religion and freedom from political oppression†¦The second way of life is based upon the will of the minority forcibly imposed upon the majority. It relies upon terror and oppression, a controlled press and radio, fixed elections and the suppression of personal freedoms†. (106) Truman believes that the United States and its democratic way of life is better then the Soviet Union and its evil oppressive way of life. He wanted to make sure that the world understood his commitment by his strong language. The Communists should not quickly take over free countries and threaten the United States and its allies. His own divided Congress should beware of the past policies of isolationism and the hope that diplomacy and the United Nations could solve the crisis. The Soviet Union already had taken over the Eastern European countries in violation of the Yalta and Potsdam agreements. The Greece and Turkey crisis was critical to victory in the Cold War. If either Greece or Turkey fell to the Soviet Union, the other would follow. More nations would tumble â€Å"as a row of falling dominoes† extending Soviet domination to Europe, the Middle East oil fields, and Africa. (Hamby 391) (CNN Cold War Appendix Maps) Communism could have spread very quickly worldwide, but it did not. The Truman Doctrine is the epitome of the containment of Communism. (Donovan 284) Greece, Turkey, Europe, and even Russia, the former Soviet Union, are currently free and democratic nations. Europe was in economic, political, and social devastation after World War II. Winston Churchill once declared, â€Å"What is Europe now? It is a rubble-heap, a charnel house, a breeding ground of pestilence and hate. † It was the perfect time for the Soviet Union to support Communism. (Goldman 66) At over $13 billion, it was aid on a much greater scale. The Truman Doctrine prompted the Marshall Plan. Truman in his Memoirs claimed that the plan was developed to do the following: (1) Counter increasing pressure of Communist imperialism, and (2) Rebuild Europe. By rebuilding Europe, America would help to establish that healthy economic balance which is essential to the peace of the world. 111) Rebuilding Europe was not only a national security issue but also a national economic issue. At the end of World War II, the United States was a major exporter. (Donovan 287) Without a strong Europe, the United States would likely have had a poor economy for many years because of lack of trade with Europe. Instead, the Truman Doctrine and Marshall Plan led to over fifty years of prosperity for Europe and the United States and the end of the Cold War. (Word Count – 534) E. Conclusion With the Truman Doctrine, the United States entered a new era of foreign policy. Great Britain, France, and Germany were no longer the colonial powers. The United States was the most powerful free nation in the world. The balance of power changed. Over the next forty years, the United States and the Soviet Union fought a Cold War for a way of life. The United States spent trillions of dollars, but the spread of Communism in Europe was contained. The result would have never have occurred had it not been for Truman’s bold move in Greece and Turkey. The cost was great, but the cost would have been greater if United States lost. Europe could have turned Communist. Instead, the Berlin Wall and the Soviet Union collapsed. Russia has enacted democratic reforms and a capitalist economy, which is ultimate proof of the success of the Truman Doctrine. (Word Count – 148) F. List of Sources Donovan, Robert, The Presidency of Harry Truman 1945-1958 Conflict & Crisis, Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1977. Goldman, Eric Frederick, The Crucial Decade and After: America, 1945-1960, New York: Random House Inc. , 1956. Hamby, Alonzo L, A Life of Harry S. Truman, Man of the People, New York: Oxford University Press Inc, 1995. Pemberton, William, Harry S. Truman, Fair Dealer & Cold Warrior, Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1989. State Department, â€Å"Summary of Telegrams for Greece, Poland and USSR,† 25 February 1947, Truman Presidential Museum and Library, 15 April 2003 Truman, Harry S. , â€Å"Address of the President of the United States: Recommendation of Assistance to Greece and Turkey,† 12 March 1947 Truman Presidential Museum and Library, 15 April 2003 Truman, Harry S. , Memoirs of Harry S. Truman, vol. 2. Garden City, Time, Inc. 1956. Woelfel, Scott, â€Å"Interactive Maps,† Cold War, CNN Interactive, April 1999 Oct 15, 2005 G. Appendix

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Carla Homolka - Essay Example For example, Bardsley (2007, Pg. 1) reports that, â€Å"She loved Paul very much. He was so unique and so very wild in bed. She would do absolutely anything to keep his love, anything at all†. However, in more professional terms and by taking a different viewpoint a different statement can be given. Anne McGillivray is an Associate Professor of Law at the University of Manitoba and she says that Carla had, â€Å"A moral vacuity in her which is difficult if not impossible to explain (McGillivray, 2007, Pg. 1)†. I feel that amongst the crimes she committed, the most difficult thing to understand is how she could help in the rape and murder of her own sister. Of course this was also her way of making up to Paul her ‘fault’ of not being a virgin before she married him. Paul wanted a virgin and was interested in deflowering her sister so she became his accomplice. However, during the process of drugging her and raping Tammy, she died and Paul as well as Carla had to hide their crime under the cover of an accident where Tammy was supposed to have drowned in her own vomit. However, this did not stop them from committing the same crime again with another girl who they kidnapped and held hostage for 24 hours during which they repeatedly assaulted and raped her. This crime was also recorded on videotape and continued till the girl died from the torture they committed on her. To hide the body, they cut her into pieces and dumped the parts in a lake (Bardsley, 2007). The couple then kidnapped another 15 year old girl with and kept her alive in their basement for several days while they engaged in rape and torture similar to the previous times they had committed this crime. Her body was found in a ditch with no clues to the murder. Carla herself suffered heavily at the hands of her husband who beat her often and in 1993 she had to leave her husband since she was hospitalized with a beating that gave her

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Emily's defiance - Essay Example Although the protagonist in the story, Miss Emily may appear outwardly quiet and reserved in the confines of her home, her blatant rebellious personal to her family's wishes and her communities serves as a subtle symbol for the gradual decline and eventual decay of American's Southern aristocracy at the end of the Civil War. Miss Emily finds it hard to come to terms with the idea of death. Consequently, she suffers a great deal of denial. After her father’s death, the townspeople anticipated her to be grieved but regrettably she is not. She told the visitors â€Å"her father was not dead† (Faulkner 2162). Instead, she stated that her father was still alive. From the story, it is clear that grieving is better than ignoring it. The story happens in the South, during a period characterized by radical political change and racial discrimination. Emily’s eccentric and inconsistent behavior becomes outright peculiar. Like the townspeople, one is left wondering how she w ould live and sleep with Homer Barron’s corpse for years on end. At first, the townspeople never thought she suffered from mental illness; they â€Å"did not say she was crazy† (Faulkner 2162). However, as the story comes to an end, it becomes clear that she was not thinking straight. It is reasonable to state that Emily developed this state as a response to the challenging conditions she underwent as a Southern woman from an aristocratic background. As it appears, she was not able to develop strong and adaptive defensive mechanism to help her cope with life. In detail, Miss Emily was from a family endowed with enormous wealth and stature in their little Southern community yet she had always been burdened with the immense expectations that the society had of her. The community saw her as possessing a â€Å"hereditary obligation† (Faulkner 2160) to keep up with certain traditions, which had been instituted numerous generations before her. Her father had the manda te to transmit such values and traditions. Nonetheless, he was rigid in the way he reinforced these expectations. As the narrator states, as a man he had â€Å"thwarted her woman’s life so many times† (Faulkner 2164). For instance, he chased all of Emily’s suitors away because he never saw one that was good enough for his daughter. Consequently, she never married. Despite her father’s oppressiveness, Miss Emily’s mental state declines even the more. As the narrator states, Emily became â€Å"sick for a long time† (Faulkner 2162). This is the time that Emily starts to avoid contact with the community. The townspeople also do not confront Emily about any essential issues, for instance, the terrible smell that emanates from her home. The smell was becoming â€Å"detached, superseded, and forbidding† (Ruthmann 87) each day. The novel generation of townspeople wants to support the idea that they confront Miss Emily directly but Judge Steve ns forbids it by saying, â€Å"will you accuse a lady to her face of smelling bad?† (Faulkner 2162). He though the smell was a body odor. The young generation gives in, and those responsible for such concerns sneak into the lady’s basement surreptitiously to eliminate the odor by spreading lime. To conclude, it is clear that although Miss Emily may appear outwardly quiet and reserved in the confines of her home, her blatant rebellious personal to her family's wishes and her communities serves as a

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The C Programming Language And Its History

The C Programming Language And Its History Introduction In this Assignment, I shall be going through the stages and milestones, which lead to the development of two successful programming languages, C++ and Java. The programming language C influenced greatly C++, and therefore I felt it was necessary to delve deeply in this programming language as well. This assignment also includes the decisions taken by their respective creators and the reasoning behind them. The C Programming Language Between 1969 and 1973, the programming language C was under development at Bell Labs, by Dennis Ritchie. [1] During the same period, the operating system UNIX was under development as well.[1] In this section, I make most of my references to texts written by Dennis Ritchie himself in the book â€Å"History of Programming Languages†.[2] Prehistory Before C, during the late 60s, Bell Labs were passing through difficult times, mainly due to the fact that the development of the Multics project was halted because the beneficial use of the GE-645 Multics machine would not be available on time and would be too costly.[4] However, during and after the disposal of the machine, an â€Å"informal team†, lead by Ken Thompson, began to research and develop other alternatives.[4] Ken Thompson aimed in constructing a comfortable work environment by using any resources available to him.[4] His design involved implementing some similar ideas of Multics, such as â€Å"an explicit notion of a process as a locus of control, a tree-structured file system, a command interpreter as a user-level program, simple representation of text files, and generalized access to devices.†[4] However, Ken Thompson also excluded other certain aspects, including â€Å"unified access to memory and to files†.[4] Furthermore, instead of using PL/I which was the implementation language of Multics, Thompson and his team used another programming language known as BCPL.[4] Just like PL/I, BCPL was also a high-level language; a great advantage which Thompson did not want to let go due to its clarity and simplicity, unlike assembly language.[4] The B Programming Language In 1968, Ken Thompson was faced with a problem with the PDP-7, a machine for which he had no compatible software available.[4] Ken Thompson then created his own PDP-7 assembler, but it was in 1969, that Doug Mcllroy created the first high-level language for the system.[4] This language was an adaptation of the programming language known as TMG, which was created for the PDP-7 by R. M. McClure.[4] Dennis Ritchie describes TMG as â€Å"a language for writing compilers (more generally, TransMoGrifiers) in a top-down, recursive-descent style that combines context-free syntax notation with procedural elements†.[4] TMG had been used to create the compiler of PLI for Multics.[4] Ken Thompson then felt it was necessary for UNIX to have its own system programming language.[4] After a reluctant effort to use FORTRAN, Thompson later designed a new programming language named B.[4] The B programming language was developed mainly based on BCPL.[4] Moreover, Dennis Ritchie describes B as â⠂¬Å"BCPL squeezed into 8K bytes of memory and filtered through Thompsons brain†.[4] He then mentions that most probably, its name came about by representing a â€Å"contraction† of BCPL.[4] However, he might have chosen it as a dedication to his wife Bonnie.[4] Development was first completed by creating a TMG version of B, where Thompson then rewrote B in itself.[6] Dennis Ritchie recalls that during this stage of development, Ken Thompson found the memory limitation to be a great challenge, as â€Å"each language addition inflated the compiler to barely fit†.[6] However, each re-write, due to the beneficial feature, â€Å"reduced its size†.[6] Dennis Ritchie continues by mentioning an example.[6] He stated that, originally coming from ALGOL 60, B generalized assignment operators such that x =+ y was used to add x to y.[6] The operator was then corrected to spell x += y back in 1976.[6] Thompson was more innovative as he created new operators such as ++ and to increment and decrement.[6] The position of these operators, written as postfix or prefix, would determine whether the change in value would â€Å"occur before or after noting the value of the operand†.[6] Instead of producing machine code, the PDP-7s B compiler generated â€Å"threaded code†, in which the compilers output was made up â€Å"of a sequence of addresses of code fragments that perform the elementary operations†.[6] In the case for B, these operations worked on a straightforward stack.[6] However, due to the fact the PDP-7 machine was too small and slow, not much was written using B, â€Å"except for B itself†.[6] It only served them for experimental use. Re-writing UNIX on this machine proved to be too much of an expensive step.[6] Furthermore, Dennis Ritchie reports that at a stage, Ken Thompson expressed the â€Å"address space crunch by offering a virtual B† which made it possible for the interpreted program to take up more than 8k bytes.[6] This was done by â€Å"paging the code and data within the interpreter†.[6] However, it was then concluded that it would not be feasible enough and would result in being too slow â€Å"for the common utilities†.[6] Despite all this, some utilities were still written in B, such as an early version of the variable precision calculator known as dc.[6] Around this time, Dennis Ritchie also recalls working on an â€Å"ambitious† project, which mainly involved creating a genuine cross-compiler capable translating B to GE-635 machine instruction instead of thread code.[6] Dennis Ritchie then comments that this task was only possible due to the practicality and ease of the B language.[6] The Unix project had proven itself so well, that they managed to get a PDP-11 at Bell Labs.[6] By using the â€Å"the threaded technique† in order to run programs written in B on this machine, it was only necessary to write â€Å"the code fragments for the operators, and a simple assembler† in which the latter, Dennis Ritchie created himself.[6] The â€Å"first interesting program† to be tested on the PDP-11, before any operating system software, was dc.[6] Furthermore, around the same time, Ken Thompson managed to record the â€Å"UNIX kernel†, along with some simple commands written in PDP-11 assembly language.[6] Later in his paper, Dennis Ritchie mentions that apart from Bs advantage regarding its simplicity, it also had its problems mainly related to the PDP-11.[7] He states that the machines, on which Bell Labs initially used BCPL and also B, were â€Å"word-addressed†.[7] Furthermore, he continues by stating that these languages only handled one single data type, known as the â€Å"cell†, which would simply be â€Å"equated with the hardware machine word†.[7] However, with the introduction of the PDP-11, a manifold of â€Å"inadequacies of Bs semantic model† were clearly visible, one of which was that its character-handling mechanisms tracking back to few changes from BCPL, were incompetent.[7] For instance, Dennis Ritchie mentions that â€Å"using library procedures to spread packed strings into individual cells and then repack, or to access and replace individual characters† did feel strange and at times â€Å"even silly†, on a machine based on bytes.[7] Despite that the first model of the PDP-11 was not capable of calculating floating-point arithmetic, the producer did affirm that this feature would be available shortly.[7] By defining special operators, floating-point operators were added to BCPL in their Multics and GCOS compilers.[7] However, these operators were only possible on certain machines where â€Å"a single word was large enough to contain a floating-point number† and therefore could not be used on the 16-it PDP-11.[7] Another inadequacy was that B and BCPL suffered from overhead due to pointers.[7] This was because the languages basis, â€Å"by defining a pointer as an index in an array of words†, restricted pointers to be represented as â€Å"word indices†.[7] For each pointer reference, it generated â€Å"a run-time scale conversion† from the pointer to the corresponding byte address intended by the hardware.[7] Due to all of these reasons, Dennis Ritchie realised that it was necessary to develop a â€Å"typing scheme† to be able to handle characters and byte addressing, and also be prepared to work with the â€Å"coming floating-point hardware†.[7] At first, type safety and interface checking was not considered to be vital and therefore were introduced at a later date.[7] Besides the issues with the B language, B compilers threaded-code technique made programs run slower than the same programs written in assembly language.[7] NB and C In 1971, Dennis Ritchie started to expand the B language and called â€Å"the slightly extended language NB, for new B†.[7] Dennis Ritchie also states that since NB was used for a very short period, no documentation was done.[8] He continues by mentioning that he added a character type and also developed its compiler to produce PDP-11 machine code instructions.[8] Therefore, the compiler was capable of converting programs fast and small enough to contest with assembly language.[8] All in all, NB offered the simple types ‘int and ‘char, arrays of them, and also pointers to them.[8] The semantics of arrays found in B and BCPL stayed the same.[8] Furthermore, inside procedures, the language interpreted pointers and array variables to be identical.[8] Ritchie explains that â€Å"a pointer declaration created a cell differing from an array declaration only in that the programmer was expected to assign a referent, instead of letting the compiler allocate the space and i nitialise the cell†.[8] The values that were held in cells, linked by â€Å"array and pointer names†, were bytes of machine addresses relating to their respective memory location.[8] This was beneficial, as an â€Å"indirection† through a pointer required no â€Å"run-time overhead† to form the pointer from a word to â€Å"byte offset†.[8] However, the machine code for â€Å"array subscripting† and â€Å"pointer arithmetic† was dependant on the actual type of the array or pointer.[8] Dennis Ritchie states that although these semantics made it very easy to transition from B, problems eventually began cropping up mainly when he tried to â€Å"extend the type notation†.[8] He continues by explaining his difficulty in implementing â€Å"structured (record) types†.[8] At first, it seemed structures should link correspondingly onto memory in the machine.[8] However, the major issue was that for a structure containing an array, there was no ideal location to store the pointer containing the base of the array, or a practical way to initialise it. [8] The goal of Dennis Ritchie was that a structure would not just â€Å"characterise† an abstract object but also â€Å"describe a collection of bits that might be read from a directory†.[8] He describes the solution in achieving this goal as â€Å"the crucial jump in the evolutionary chain between type-less BCPL and typed C†.[8] Rather then having a â€Å"materialization of the pointer† located in memory, the pointer would be created only when the array name is refereed to in an expression.[8] Moreover, values of type array, once mentioned in an expression, would change its values to pointers to direct to the objects making up the array.[8] Despite the fact that the semantics of this new language had shiftily changed, most code written in B could still be used. Furthermore, this language also differed from its predecessors as it offered a â€Å"comprehensive type structure† and â€Å"expression in the syntax of declaration†.[8] After creating the â€Å"type system, the associated syntax, and the compiler†, Dennis Ritchie believed that this language deserved its own name, as when compared to NB, they were very distinctive.[8] Therefore, he called the programming Language C, â€Å" leaving open the question whether the name represented a progression through the alphabet or through the letters in BCPL†.[8] UNIX benefited greatly due to C. It made improving and maintaining UNIX very easy for any programmer who had an understanding of C. [1] Furthermore, it also made UNIX easily portable for newly developed computers. [1] This is mainly because it was unnecessary to convert the operating system to assemble language manually, but only required a C assembly compiler for that particular machine. [1] This compiler translates the code into machine code that the device understands. [1] C has gained a huge amount of success over the years and is still presently used in development. It is mainly known for its fast speed. [1] The C++ Programming Language The book â€Å"History of Programming Languages† also contains a paper written by Bjarne Stroustrup, the creator of C++.[9] In this paper, he narrates the history of the C++ programming language, focusing more on the ideas, limitation and â€Å"people that shaped the language†.[9] Prehistory More or less, Stroustrup begins his paper by stating that C++ was based on an â€Å"earlier version† of a programming language known as C with Classes.[10] However, before going into further detail, he begins discussing the prehistory of all this.[10] At Cambridge University, whilst working on his Ph.D that dealt with the study of different methods regarding the organization of software for a distributed system, Stroustrup focused on developing software â€Å"out of well-delimited modules† and also created experimental simulator â€Å"tool† in order to simulate â€Å"software running on a distributed system†.[10] This first version of the simulator was developed in Simula and ran on the Universitys IBM 360/165 mainframe.[10] It was very beneficial for Bjarne Stroustrup to use Simula, stating that: â€Å"the features of Simula were almost ideal for the purpose and I was particularly impressed by the way the concepts of the language helped me think about the problems in my application†.[10] Particularly, the behaviour of classes allowed Stroustrup to link directly the application of his ideas to the language constructs easily, especially due to the fact that classes in Simula are able to behave as co-routines.[10] He states that the use of class hierarchies enabled him to declare â€Å"variants of application level concepts†.[10] He continues by explaining further, through an example, that different types could be described as classes deriving from other classes.[10] The following are his exact words: â€Å"For example, different types of computers could be expressed as classes derived from class computer and different types of intermodule communication mechanisms could be expressed as class es derived from class IPC†.[10] Other benefits of Simula were its type scheme and the ability to detect type errors through its compiler.[10] The detection of a type error was either caused by some â€Å"silly† mistake, or due to some â€Å"conceptual flaw† in the design, in which both cases, especially the latter, helped Stroustrup greatly.[10] He had not experienced such beneficial use with other â€Å"more primitive strong type systems†.[10] Furthermore, referring to his simulator, when the program increased in size, due to Simulas class, co-routine and precise type checking mechanisms, flaws and errors would not grow alongside.[10] On the other hand, the implementation of Simula did not â€Å"scale in the same way† and nearly resulted in creating a disastrous program.[10] Stroustrup concluded that Simula was ideal for writing small programs but suffered â€Å"inherently† for larger ones due to its poor run-time performance characteristics.[10] Today, Simula implementations have improved greatly, but at that time, in order to avoid terminating the project, Stroustrup rewrote the simulator in BCPL.[10] He found programming in BCPL a very â€Å"horrible† experience, mainly due to its lack of type checking and run-time help.[10] However, once the simulator was developed, the program ran competitively fast.[10] Once he graduated from Cambridge, Bjarne Stroustrup promised himself that he would never attempt to solve a problem with those impractical tools as he had â€Å"suffered while designing and implementing the simulator†.[10] However he did define what is a â€Å"suitable tool† for writing system programs, which was highly significant when he was developing C++. [10] In Stroustrups eyes, a â€Å"suitable tool† involved the following characteristics.[10] Firstly, it would have Simulas support for program organisation and thus include classes, the ability to form class hierarchies, concurrency mechanisms, and a good type-checking scheme relating to classes.[10] Secondly, it must also be capable of producing programs possessing similar speed as to BCPL programs, and also allow the combination of independently compiled units into a program.[10] Lastly, it must allow the ability to create highly portable implementations.[10] C with Classes The undertaking, which eventually lead to developing C++, began in 1979, when Bjarne Stroustrup tried to understand the UNIX kernel, in order to find out the limit that could be distributed over a network of computer via a local area network (LAN).[11] This work took place in the Computer Science Research Center of Bell Laboratories.[11] With little time, Stroustrup faced two sub-problems, namely, â€Å"how to analyse the network traffic that would result from the kernel distribution and how to modularize the kernel†.[11] They both required a way to describe the model structure of a complicated system and the communication trends of the modules, issues extremely similar to the kind that Stroustrup was eager to never have to face again without the suitable tools.[11] Therefore, by referring to the criteria he had stated upon leaving Cambridge, Bjarne Stroustrup began to develop his own suitable tool.[11] By October of 1979, he had a preprocessor called Cpre. [11] Cpre was able to add â€Å"Simula-like classes to C†, and in March of 1980 this processor had been upgraded to actually support one â€Å"real project and several experiments†.[11] Later that year, between April and October, Stroustrup mentions that he let go of the ideal of â€Å"thinking about a tool† but rather began â€Å"thinking about a language†, to develop what is known as C with Classes.[11] However, initially, he did not consider C with Classes to be an independent language but just an expansion to C for â€Å"expressing modularity and concurrency†.[11] C with classes did not support primitives for expression.[11] Instead it included a mix of inheritance and offered a way to define class member functions with â€Å"special meanings† understood by the preprocessor, which was used to develop the library that handled the required â€Å"styles† of concurrency. Stroustrup emphasises on the word â€Å"styles† and that it is written in plural.[11] He found it vital that numerous notations of concurrency are able to be expressed in the language.[11] Backed by colleagues, other C++ users and the C++ standards committee, to this day he still believes that this was the right decision.[11] He then continues on this topic by stating that there in â€Å"no one dominant model for concurrency support†, and making use of a library or a special purpose extension for support on a particular form of concurrency would not limit others in using different forms.[11] Therefore, â€Å"the language provided general mechanisms for organising programs rather than support for specific application areas†.[11] It was not only in this instance that Bjarne Stroustrup did not force programmers to use a particular style.[11] C is capable of computing numerous low-level operations, such as bit manipulation and choosing between different sizes of integers.[11] Furthermore, although C++ systematically eliminates the need to use such low-level operators due to safety, they are still available for programmers to use, as Bjarne Stroustrup did not wish to restrict them in any way.[11] In fact, quoting his exact words, he states â€Å"I strongly felt then, as I still do, that there is no one right way of writing every program, and a language designer has no business trying to force programmers to use a particular style.[11] The language designer does, on the other hand, have an obligation to encourage and support a variety of styles and practices that have proven effective and to provide language features and tools to help programmers avoid the well known traps and pitfalls†.[11] Bjarne Stroustrup continues his paper by explaining further the features available to C with class, a language considered to be a stepping stone in creating C++.[11] C with Classes does not differ greatly compared to C.[11] Due to the fact that a preprocessor was used to implement C with Classes, the language differs only in the newly added features.[11] He lists these features which are shown as below. Note that the last three features were implemented in 1981, whilst the others were implemented one year earlier.[11] â€Å"classes†[11] â€Å"derived classes†[11] â€Å"public/private access control†[11] â€Å"constructors and destructors†[11] â€Å"call and Return functions†[11] â€Å"friend Classes†[11] â€Å"type Checking and Conversion of Function arguments†[11] â€Å"inline functions†[11] â€Å"default arguments†[11] â€Å"overloading of the assignment operator†[11] One of the major features offered by C with Classes was the idea of classes.[12] Stroustrup describes a class as a â€Å"user-defined data type†, meaning that it is a custom data type created by the programmer.[12] He continues by stating that â€Å"a class specifies the type of the class members that define the representation of a variable of the type, specifies the set of operations that manipulate such objects and specifies the access users have to these members†.[12] In other words, it simply defines the attributes and methods of a data type, including their access rights.[12] At that time, Simula did not support local or global variables of class types, and therefore objects of classes had to be â€Å"allocated on the free store using the new operator†.[12] After developing his simulator earlier in Cambridge, he considered Simulas lack of support on variables of class types as a â€Å"major source of inefficiency† at run-time.[12] Moreover, after some time, Karel Babcisky, who worked at the Norwegian Computer Centre, published information on â€Å"Simula run-time performance† that backed Stroustrups thinking. For this reason, Stroustrup wanted to support local and global variables of class types.[12] The first version of C with Classes did not support â€Å"Inline Functions†, and therefore was not initially advantageous of the languages representation. Stroustrup, in his book, â€Å"The C++ Programming Language†, describes an inline specifier on a function as a â€Å"hint† to the compiler that it should try to create code for a call.[5] He introduced inline functions to avoid programmers â€Å"crossing a protection barrier† that otherwise would result in not allowing the classes to be used hide representation.[12] Another concept, which Stroustrup thought about deeply, was the linkage model. Stroustrup starts explaining this by stating that to a certain extent, the way compiled programs might link to one another, â€Å"determines the features the language can provide†.[12] At the time of implementing C with Classes and C++, he had taken certain decisions regarding this issue. Firstly, that â€Å"separate compilation should be possible with traditional C/FORTRAN UNIX/DOS style linkers†.[12] Secondly, type safety should be checked on linkages.[12] Thirdly, it is not necessary for a linkage to need some sort of database, but a database could be beneficial in order to straighten the intended implementation.[12] Lastly, â€Å"linkage to program fragments written in other languages such as C, assembler and FORTRAN should be easy and efficient†.[12] Bjarne Stroustrup also added static types to his language implementation.[12] By his experience with Simula and ALGOL 68, he considered this to be essential in supporting static types.[12] The only difficulty for him was how to implement it.[12] In order not to break C code, Stroustrup decided that he would allow the â€Å"call of an undeclared function† and not test type safety on such â€Å"undeclared functions†.[12] However, this was a gaping hole in the type system and a great effort was made to lessen the problems relating to this issue.[12] C with Classes had lost the capability to detect run-time errors caused by â€Å"simple type errors†.[12] Due to the fact that most programmers that worked with C were reliable on type checks available, finding simple errors was tedious when programming in C with Classes.[12] Thus, a great demand arose to strengthen C with Classs type system.[12] Eventually, in C++ the issue had been solved by â€Å"making a call of an undeclared function illegal†.[12] Derived classes were also another concept which Stroustrup implemented.[14] However, the C with Classes language did not support Simulas concept of virtual function until later with the introduction of C++.[14] Similar to Simulas prefix class notion and Smalltalks subclass concept, C++ also supported derived classes.[14] However, Stroustrup gave the names â€Å"derived class† and â€Å"base class†, mainly due to the fact that he, along with others, had difficulty in recalling what was â€Å"sub† and what was â€Å"super†.[14] Furthermore, a number of people believed it to be â€Å"counterintuitive† as a subclass usually â€Å"has more inform than its superclass†.[14] Although there was no support of virtual functions within C with Classes, derived classes were beneficial for creating new data structures based on older ones and linking operations with the resulting types.[14] However, programmers could have simply used an object of a derived c lass and consider its base class as â€Å"implementation details†.[14] Towards the middle of his paper, Stroustrup mentions the reasons why he chose the programming language C to extend on, rather than Pascal.[13] Although he points out that C is not the â€Å"cleanest language ever designed nor the easiest to use†, he selected C due to its flexibility, efficiency, availability and portability.[13] C++ Between 1982 and 1984, Stroustrup developed the popular programming language C++. Initially known as C84, it was later changed to C++ because C84 was described by Stroustrup as â€Å"ugly† and â€Å"institutional†. Compared to C with Classes, C++ includes major upgrades and new features. Listed by Stroustrup, these major additions include: â€Å"Virtual functions†[15] â€Å"Function name and operator overloading†[15] â€Å"References†[15] â€Å"Constants (const)†[15] â€Å"User-controlled free-store memory control†[15] â€Å"Improved type checking†[15] The ability to overload an operator was in demand by many.[16] Stroustrup too liked the concept, and to him, â€Å"Operator overloading looked neat.[16] Although, through his experience of ALGOL 68, he had an idea on how overloading â€Å"could be made to work†, at first he was â€Å"reluctant†, to add it to C++.[16] The reason for this was that Overloading was known to be hard to implement and therefore resulted in compilers increasing in size.[16] It was also known to be â€Å"inherently inefficient† and made code â€Å"incomprehensible†.[16] However, if this reputation proved to be incorrect, Bjarne Stroustrup, at that time, admitted that overloading would solve a lot of C++ user problems.[16] He was convinced that overloading would not result in inherent inefficiency.[16] Furthermore, he mentions that â€Å"overloading makes code obscure† and it would make their code appear â€Å"cleaner†.[16] He also observed the way Overloading would w ork with classes, and he prepared manual papers to show that the added complexity would not pose any problems.[16] Due to all these reasons, in addition to two hours of work in implementing overloading in C front for demonstrations, Stroustrup had convinced himself to include overloading to C ++.[16] Among other features, the concept of referencing was added to C++.[16] References were initially added to support overloading.[16] C passed arguments by value.[16] If passing an object by value would result in inefficiency, the programmer is able to pass a pointer.[16] However, overloading operators did not permit this strategy.[16] Therefore, due to the fact that C ++ supports both pointers and references, it does not need means for â€Å"distinguishing operations on the reference itself from operations on the object referred to†.[16] From the initial version of C ++ to the C++ currently available today, a lot of updates and versions were released.[17] Version 2.0 was a great improvement.[17] Amongst other features, it mainly introduced abstract classes and multiple inheritance.[17] Multiple inheritance allows users to have more than one direct base class.[17] However, Stroustrup did admit that adding multiple inheritance in version 2.0 was a mistake, as he felt that this concept was less important than adding â€Å"parametrized types†.[17] Parametrized types were later added in version 3.0.[17] The Java Programming Language The Java Programming Language was developed by a team Sun Microsystems engineers, led by James Gosling[3]. The project started in 1991 and was released in 1995.[3] Prehistory Back in the late 1970s, Bill Joy, the man who many still believe was the first to come up with the â€Å"idea of a programming language that later became Java†, wanted to create a language that would consist of the best features of MESA and C.[3] Having attempted to re-write UNIX in 1980, he realised that C++ was â€Å"inadequate† to accomplish this task.[3] He wanted a much more powerful tool that is able to write short and effective programs. [3]This longing started to become a reality in 1991, when Sun Microsystems began to develop a language induced by Joys idea.[3] The Suns project was initially known as the â€Å"Stealth Project† named by Scott McNealy.[3] It was during January of that year, when James Gosling, Mike Sheradin, Patrick Naughton and Bill Joy, along with others, organized a meeting in Aspen Colorado, to discuss their ideas for this project.[3] The main aim of the Stealth Project was to conduct research in the area of computers use in the  "consumer electronics market.[3] The major objective was to create a â€Å"smart† consumer electronic device that would accept instructions from a â€Å"handheld-romote-control-like device†.[3] In Goslings words, he states that â€Å"the goal was †¦ to build a system that would let us do a large, distributed, heterogeneous network of consumer electronic devices all talking to each-other†.[3] The Stealth Project later came to be known as the Green Project.[3] The work that was done by the team was divided as follows: Mike Sheradin worked on business development, Patrick Naughton focused mainly on the graphics system, whilst James Gosling took the task of finding the proper language to use for the project. [3]Before joining Sun in 1984, James Gosling created â€Å"the commercially unsuccessful NeWs windowing system as well as GOSMACS†.[3] As described by the site, GOSMACS was â€Å"a C language implementation of GNU EMACS.[3] Oak Programming Language The language James Gosling initially had chosen to use for Green Project was C++.[3] However, after some time working on it, he found it inadequate for the required task.[3] Therefore, he began adding extensions and changes to C++, which were described as the first building blocks in developing an independent language that would fit ideally to achieve the projects objectives.[3] Gosling named the language â€Å"Oak†, while he was staring at an oak tree though his office window.[3] However, some time after, the name was abolished mainly due to the fact that the name had already been in use for another programming language.[3] In fact Gosling stated that â€Å"the Java development team discovered that Oak was the name of a programming language that predated Suns language, so another name had to be chosen†.[3] It was later called Java. Gosling recounted that â€Å"its surprisingly difficult to find a good n